Cardiac changes
Vascular changes
Heart weight
↑
Arterial wall thickness (intima-media)
↑
Cardiomyocyte dimensions
↑
Subendothelial collagen
↑
Cardiomyocyte number
↓
Elastin
↑
Collagen in cross-linking
↑
Elastin fragmentation
↑
Ejection fraction
=
Proteoglycans
↑
Stroke volume
=
MMP activity
↑
Cardiac output
=
Intimai migration/proliferation of VSMC
↑
Early diastolic filling
↓
Arterial distensibility
↓
End-diastolic filling
↑
Pulse wave velocity
↑
Chronotropic responsiveness to β-adrenergic stimuli/catecholamines
↓
Total peripheral resistance
↑
Inotropic responsiveness to β-adrenergic stimuli/catecholamines
↓
Endothelial permeability
↑
Inotropic response to digitalis glycosides
↓
Endothelial nitric oxide release
↓
Peak cardiac output to maximal effort
↓
Inflammatory markers/mediators
↑
Lusitropic function