Nuclides and Radioactive Processes

 

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataChandra, Ramesh, 1938-Nuclear medicine physics: the basics/Ramesh Chandra.—7th ed.

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Includes bibliographical references and index.

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1. Medical physics. 2. Nuclear medicine. 3. Radioisotopes. I. Title.

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To the future,my grandsons,Aidan, Liam, and Alexander

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Preface

 

1 Basic Review

Matter, Elements, and Atoms

Simplified Structure of an Atom

Molecules

Binding Energy, Ionization, and Excitation

Forces or Fields

Electromagnetic Forces

Characteristic X-Rays and Auger Electrons

Interchangeability of Mass and Energy

2 Nuclides and Radioactive Processes

Nuclides and Their Classification

Nuclear Structure and Excited States of a Nuclide

Radionuclides and Stability of Nuclides

Radioactive Series or Chain

Radioactive Processes and Conservation Laws

Alpha Decay

Beta Decay

Gamma Decay or Isomeric Transition

Decay Schemes

3 Radioactivity: Law of Decay, Half-Life, and Statistics

Radioactivity: Definition, Units, and Dosage

Law of Decay

Calculation of the Mass of a Radioactive Sample

Specific Activity

The Exponential Law of Decay

Half-Life

Problems on Radioactive Decay

Average Life (Tav)

Biological Half-Life

Effective Half-Life

Statistics of Radioactive Decay

Poisson distribution, Standard Deviation, and Percent Standard Deviation

Propagation of Statistical Errors

Room Background

4 Production of Radionuclides

Methods of Radionuclide Production

Reactor-Produced Radionuclides

Accelerator- or Cyclotron-Produced Radionuclides

Fission-Produced Radionuclides

General Considerations in the Production of Radionuclides

Production of Short-Lived Radionuclides, Using a Generator

Principles of a Generator

Description of a Typical Generator

5 Radiopharmaceuticals

Design Considerations for a Radiopharmaceutical

Selection of a Radionuclide

Selection of a Chemical

Development of a Radiopharmaceutical

Chemical Studies

Animal Distribution and Toxicity Studies

Human or Clinical Studies

Quality Control of a Radiopharmaceutical

Radionuclidic Purity

Radiochemical Purity

Chemical Purity

Sterility

Apyrogenicity

Labeling of Radiopharmaceuticals with Technetium-99m

Technetium-99m-Labeled Radiopharmaceuticals

Technetium-99m Pertechnetate (image)

Technetium-99m-Labeled Sulfur Colloid

Technetium-99m-Labeled Macroaggregated Albumin (99mTc MAA)

Technetium-99m-Labeled Polyphosphate, Pyrophosphate, and Diphosphonate

Technetium-99m-Labeled Human Serum Albumin

Technetium-99m-Labeled Red Cells

Technetium-99m-Labeled 2,3-Dimercaptosuccinic Acid (DMSA)

Technetium-99m-Labeled Diethylenetriamine Pentaacetic Acid (DTPA)

Technetium-99m-Labeled Glucoheptonate

Technetium-99m-Labeled Mertiatide (MAG3)

Technetium-99m-Labeled 2,6-Dimethyl Acetanilide Iminodiacetic Acid (HIDA) and Related Compounds (Diethyl-IDA, PIPIDA, and DISIDA)

Technetium-99m-Labeled Sestamibi (Cardiolite)

Technetium-99m-Labeled Tetrofosmin (Myoview)

Technetium-99m-Labeled Brain Imaging Agents (Exametazime [Ceretec], Hexamethylpropyleneamine Oxime [HMPAO], and Ethyl Cysteinate Dimer [ECD])

Radioiodine-Labeled Radiopharmaceuticals (131I and 123I)

Iodine-131- or Iodine-123-Labeled Sodium Iodide

Other Iodine-123-Labeled Radiopharmaceuticals

Compounds Labeled with Other Radionuclides

Gallium-67 Citrate

Thallous-201 Chloride

Chromium-51-Labeled Red Cells

Indium-111-Labeled DTPA

Indium-111-Labeled Platelets and Leukocytes

Indium-111-Labeled DTPA Pentetreotide (OctreoScan)

Radiolabeled Monoclonal Antibodies and Synthetic Peptides

Radioactive Gases and Aerosols

Radiopharmeceuticals for PET Imaging

18FDG (2-deoxy-fluoro-D-glucose)

Radiopharmaceuticals in Pregnant or Lactating Women

Therapeutic Uses of Radiopharmaceuticals

Design of a Radiopharmaceutical for Therapeutic Uses

Problems and Uses

Misadministration of Radiopharmaceuticals

6 Interaction of High-Energy Radiation With Matter

Interaction of Charged Particles (10 keV to 10 MeV)

Principal Mechanism of Interaction

Differences between Lighter and Heavier Charged Particles

Range R of a Charged Particle

Factors That Affect Range, R

Bremsstrahlung Production

Stopping Power (S)

Linear Energy Transfer (LET)

Difference between LET and Stopping Power S

Annihilation of Positrons

Interaction of x- or γ-rays (10 keV to 10 MeV)

Attenuation and Transmission of X- or γ-Rays

Attenuation through Heterogeneous Medium

Mass Attenuation Coefficient, μ(mass)

Atomic Attenuation Coefficient, μ(atom)

Mechanisms of Interaction

Dependence of μ(mass) and μ(linear) on Z

Relative Importance of the Three Processes

Interaction of Neutrons

7 Radiation Dosimetry

General Comments on Radiation Dose Calculations

Definitions and Units

Radiation Dose, D

Radiation Dose Rate, dD/dt

Parameters or Data Needed

Calculation of the Radiation Dose

Step 1: Rate of Energy Emission

Step 2: Rate of Energy Absorption

General Comments on φi(T←S)

Step 3: Dose Rate, dD/dt

Step 4: Average Dose, D

Cumulated Radioactivity

Simplification of Radiation Dose Calculations Using “S” Factor

Some Illustrative Examples

Radiation Doses in Routine Imaging Procedures

Radiation Doses in Children

Radiation Dose to a Fetus

8 Detection of High-Energy Radiation

What Do We Want to Know About Radiation?

Simple Detection

Quantity of Radiation

Energy of the Radiation

Nature of Radiation

What Makes One Radiation Detector Better Than Another?

Intrinsic Efficiency or Sensitivity

Dead Time or Resolving Time

Energy Discrimination Capability or Energy Resolution

Other Considerations

Types of Detectors

Gas-Filled Detectors

Scintillation Detectors (Counters)

Semiconductor Detectors

9 In Vitro Radiation Detection

Overall Efficiency E

Intrinsic Efficiency

Geometric Efficiency

Well-type NaI (T1) Scintillation Detectors (Well Counters)

Liquid Scintillation Detectors

Basic Components

Preparation of the Sample Detector Vial

Problems Arising in Sample Preparation

10 In Vivo Radiation Detection: Basic Problems, Probes, and Rectilinear Scanners

Basic Problems

Collimation

Scattering

Attenuation

Organ Uptake Probes

NaI(Tl) Detector

Collimator

Miniature Surgical Probes

Organ Imaging Devices

Rectilinear Scanner

11 In Vivo Radiation Detection: Scintillation Camera

Scintillation Camera

Collimators

Parallel Hole

Detector, NaI(Tl) Crystal

Position Determining Circuit (x, y Coordinates)

Display

Imaging with a Scintillation Camera

Interfacing with a Computer or All-digital Camera

Digitization in General

Digitization in the Scintillation Camera

Some Applications of Computers

Automatic Acquisition of Images

Display of Images

Analysis of the Images

12 Operational Characteristics and Quality Control of a Scintillation Camera

Quantitative Parameters for Measuring Spatial Resolution

Point-Spread Function and FWHM

Modulation Transfer Function

Resolution of an Imaging Chain

Quantitative Parameters for Measuring Sensitivity

Point Sensitivity Sp

Line Sensitivity SL

Plane Sensitivity SA

Factors Affecting Spatial Resolution and Sensitivity of an Imager

Scintillation Camera

Loss of Spatial Resolution Resulting from Septal Penetration

Variation in Spatial Resolution with Depth

Uniformity and High Count Rate Performance of a Scintillation Camera

Uniformity

High Count Rate Performance

Quality Control of Imaging Devices

Scintillation Camera

13 Detectability or Final Contrast in an Image

Parameters that Affect Detectability of a Lesion

Object Contrast

Spatial Resolution and Sensitivity of an Imaging Device

Statistical (Quantum) Noise

Projection of Volume Distribution into Areal Distribution

Compton Scattering of γ-Rays

Attenuation

Object Motion

Display Parameters

Contrast-Detail Curve

Receiver Operator Characteristic (ROC) Curve

14 Emission Computed Tomography

Principles of Transverse Tomography

Considerations in Data Acquisition

Reconstruction of the Cross Section

Attenuation Correction in Filtered Back Projection

Scatter Correction in Filtered Back Projection

Single-photon Emission Computed Tomography

Data Acquisition with a Scintillation Camera

Collimators

Other Requirements or Sources of Error

Dedicated SPECT Systems

Positron Emission Tomography

Why PET?

Principles of PET

PET Instrumentation

PET-CT and PET-SPECT

15 Biological Effects of Radiation and Risk Evaluation from Radiation Exposure

Mechanism of Biological Damage

Factors Affecting Biological Damage

Radiation Dose

Dose Rate

LET or Type of Radiation

Type of Tissue

Amount of Tissue

Rate of Cell Turnover

Biological Variation

Chemical Modifiers

Deleterious Effects in Humans

Acute Effects

Late Effects

Radiation Effects in the Fetus

Different Radiation Exposures and the Concepts of Equivalent Dose (Dose Equivalent) and Effective Dose (Effective Dose Equivalent)

Sources of Radiation Exposure

Effective Doses in Nuclear Medicine and Comparison with Other Sources of Exposure

16 Methods of Safe Handling of Radionuclides and Pertaining Rules and Regulations

Principles of Reducing Exposure from External Sources

Time

Distance

Shielding

Avoiding Internal Contamination

The Radioactive Patient

Rules and Regulations

U.S. Regulatory Agencies

Exposure or Dose Limits: Annual Limit on Intake and Derived Air Concentration

ALARA Principle

Types of Licenses

Radiation Safety Committee and Radiation Safety Officer

Personnel Monitoring

Receipt, Use, and Disposal of Radionuclides

Control and Labeling of Areas Where Radionuclides are Stored and/or Used

Contamination Survey and Radiation-Level Monitoring

Receiving and Shipping (Transport) of Radioactive Packages

Accidental Radioactive Spills

A Appendix A: Physical Characteristics of Some Radionuclides of Interest in Nuclear Medicine

B Appendix B: CGS and SI Units

C Appendix C: Exponential Table

D Appendix D: Radionuclides of Interest in Nuclear Medicine

E Appendix E: Organ Masses of a Standard Man

Answers

Suggestions for Further Reading

Index

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Sep 3, 2016 | Posted by in NUCLEAR MEDICINE | Comments Off on Nuclides and Radioactive Processes

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