Radioactivity: Law of Decay, Half-Life, and Statistics




 


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Chandra, Ramesh, 1938-
Nuclear medicine physics: the basics/Ramesh Chandra.—7th ed.


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Includes bibliographical references and index.


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1. Medical physics. 2. Nuclear medicine. 3. Radioisotopes. I. Title.


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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1



To the future,
my grandsons,
Aidan, Liam, and Alexander




image




 

Preface


 


1 Basic Review



Matter, Elements, and Atoms



Simplified Structure of an Atom



Molecules



Binding Energy, Ionization, and Excitation



Forces or Fields



Electromagnetic Forces



Characteristic X-Rays and Auger Electrons



Interchangeability of Mass and Energy



2 Nuclides and Radioactive Processes



Nuclides and Their Classification



Nuclear Structure and Excited States of a Nuclide



Radionuclides and Stability of Nuclides



Radioactive Series or Chain



Radioactive Processes and Conservation Laws



Alpha Decay



Beta Decay



Gamma Decay or Isomeric Transition



Decay Schemes



3 Radioactivity: Law of Decay, Half-Life, and Statistics



Radioactivity: Definition, Units, and Dosage



Law of Decay



Calculation of the Mass of a Radioactive Sample



Specific Activity



The Exponential Law of Decay



Half-Life



Problems on Radioactive Decay



Average Life (Tav)



Biological Half-Life



Effective Half-Life



Statistics of Radioactive Decay



Poisson distribution, Standard Deviation, and Percent Standard Deviation



Propagation of Statistical Errors



Room Background



4 Production of Radionuclides



Methods of Radionuclide Production



Reactor-Produced Radionuclides



Accelerator- or Cyclotron-Produced Radionuclides



Fission-Produced Radionuclides



General Considerations in the Production of Radionuclides



Production of Short-Lived Radionuclides, Using a Generator



Principles of a Generator



Description of a Typical Generator



5 Radiopharmaceuticals



Design Considerations for a Radiopharmaceutical



Selection of a Radionuclide



Selection of a Chemical



Development of a Radiopharmaceutical



Chemical Studies



Animal Distribution and Toxicity Studies



Human or Clinical Studies



Quality Control of a Radiopharmaceutical



Radionuclidic Purity



Radiochemical Purity



Chemical Purity



Sterility



Apyrogenicity



Labeling of Radiopharmaceuticals with Technetium-99m



Technetium-99m-Labeled Radiopharmaceuticals



Technetium-99m Pertechnetate (image)



Technetium-99m-Labeled Sulfur Colloid



Technetium-99m-Labeled Macroaggregated Albumin (99mTc MAA)



Technetium-99m-Labeled Polyphosphate, Pyrophosphate, and Diphosphonate



Technetium-99m-Labeled Human Serum Albumin



Technetium-99m-Labeled Red Cells



Technetium-99m-Labeled 2,3-Dimercaptosuccinic Acid (DMSA)



Technetium-99m-Labeled Diethylenetriamine Pentaacetic Acid (DTPA)



Technetium-99m-Labeled Glucoheptonate



Technetium-99m-Labeled Mertiatide (MAG3)



Technetium-99m-Labeled 2,6-Dimethyl Acetanilide Iminodiacetic Acid (HIDA) and Related Compounds (Diethyl-IDA, PIPIDA, and DISIDA)



Technetium-99m-Labeled Sestamibi (Cardiolite)



Technetium-99m-Labeled Tetrofosmin (Myoview)



Technetium-99m-Labeled Brain Imaging Agents (Exametazime [Ceretec], Hexamethylpropyleneamine Oxime [HMPAO], and Ethyl Cysteinate Dimer [ECD])



Radioiodine-Labeled Radiopharmaceuticals (131I and 123I)



Iodine-131- or Iodine-123-Labeled Sodium Iodide



Other Iodine-123-Labeled Radiopharmaceuticals



Compounds Labeled with Other Radionuclides



Gallium-67 Citrate



Thallous-201 Chloride



Chromium-51-Labeled Red Cells



Indium-111-Labeled DTPA



Indium-111-Labeled Platelets and Leukocytes



Indium-111-Labeled DTPA Pentetreotide (OctreoScan)



Radiolabeled Monoclonal Antibodies and Synthetic Peptides



Radioactive Gases and Aerosols



Radiopharmeceuticals for PET Imaging



18FDG (2-deoxy-fluoro-D-glucose)



Radiopharmaceuticals in Pregnant or Lactating Women



Therapeutic Uses of Radiopharmaceuticals



Design of a Radiopharmaceutical for Therapeutic Uses



Problems and Uses



Misadministration of Radiopharmaceuticals



6 Interaction of High-Energy Radiation With Matter



Interaction of Charged Particles (10 keV to 10 MeV)



Principal Mechanism of Interaction



Differences between Lighter and Heavier Charged Particles



Range R of a Charged Particle



Factors That Affect Range, R



Bremsstrahlung Production



Stopping Power (S)



Linear Energy Transfer (LET)



Difference between LET and Stopping Power S



Annihilation of Positrons



Interaction of x- or γ-rays (10 keV to 10 MeV)



Attenuation and Transmission of X- or γ-Rays



Attenuation through Heterogeneous Medium



Mass Attenuation Coefficient, μ(mass)



Atomic Attenuation Coefficient, μ(atom)



Mechanisms of Interaction



Dependence of μ(mass) and μ(linear) on Z



Relative Importance of the Three Processes



Interaction of Neutrons



7 Radiation Dosimetry



General Comments on Radiation Dose Calculations



Definitions and Units



Radiation Dose, D



Radiation Dose Rate, dD/dt



Parameters or Data Needed



Calculation of the Radiation Dose



Step 1: Rate of Energy Emission



Step 2: Rate of Energy Absorption



General Comments on φi(T←S)



Step 3: Dose Rate, dD/dt



Step 4: Average Dose, D



Cumulated Radioactivity



Simplification of Radiation Dose Calculations Using “S” Factor



Some Illustrative Examples



Radiation Doses in Routine Imaging Procedures



Radiation Doses in Children



Radiation Dose to a Fetus



8 Detection of High-Energy Radiation



What Do We Want to Know About Radiation?



Simple Detection



Quantity of Radiation



Energy of the Radiation



Nature of Radiation



What Makes One Radiation Detector Better Than Another?



Intrinsic Efficiency or Sensitivity



Dead Time or Resolving Time



Energy Discrimination Capability or Energy Resolution



Other Considerations



Types of Detectors



Gas-Filled Detectors



Scintillation Detectors (Counters)



Semiconductor Detectors



9 In Vitro Radiation Detection



Overall Efficiency E



Intrinsic Efficiency



Geometric Efficiency



Well-type NaI (T1) Scintillation Detectors (Well Counters)



Liquid Scintillation Detectors



Basic Components



Preparation of the Sample Detector Vial



Problems Arising in Sample Preparation



10 In Vivo Radiation Detection: Basic Problems, Probes, and Rectilinear Scanners



Basic Problems



Collimation



Scattering



Attenuation



Organ Uptake Probes



NaI(Tl) Detector



Collimator



Miniature Surgical Probes



Organ Imaging Devices



Rectilinear Scanner



11 In Vivo Radiation Detection: Scintillation Camera



Scintillation Camera



Collimators



Parallel Hole



Detector, NaI(Tl) Crystal



Position Determining Circuit (x, y Coordinates)



Display



Imaging with a Scintillation Camera



Interfacing with a Computer or All-digital Camera



Digitization in General



Digitization in the Scintillation Camera



Some Applications of Computers



Automatic Acquisition of Images



Display of Images



Analysis of the Images



12 Operational Characteristics and Quality Control of a Scintillation Camera



Quantitative Parameters for Measuring Spatial Resolution



Point-Spread Function and FWHM



Modulation Transfer Function



Resolution of an Imaging Chain



Quantitative Parameters for Measuring Sensitivity



Point Sensitivity Sp



Line Sensitivity SL



Plane Sensitivity SA



Factors Affecting Spatial Resolution and Sensitivity of an Imager



Scintillation Camera



Loss of Spatial Resolution Resulting from Septal Penetration



Variation in Spatial Resolution with Depth



Uniformity and High Count Rate Performance of a Scintillation Camera



Uniformity



High Count Rate Performance



Quality Control of Imaging Devices



Scintillation Camera



13 Detectability or Final Contrast in an Image



Parameters that Affect Detectability of a Lesion



Object Contrast



Spatial Resolution and Sensitivity of an Imaging Device



Statistical (Quantum) Noise



Projection of Volume Distribution into Areal Distribution



Compton Scattering of γ-Rays



Attenuation



Object Motion



Display Parameters



Contrast-Detail Curve



Receiver Operator Characteristic (ROC) Curve



14 Emission Computed Tomography



Principles of Transverse Tomography



Considerations in Data Acquisition



Reconstruction of the Cross Section



Attenuation Correction in Filtered Back Projection



Scatter Correction in Filtered Back Projection



Single-photon Emission Computed Tomography



Data Acquisition with a Scintillation Camera



Collimators



Other Requirements or Sources of Error



Dedicated SPECT Systems



Positron Emission Tomography



Why PET?



Principles of PET



PET Instrumentation



PET-CT and PET-SPECT



15 Biological Effects of Radiation and Risk Evaluation from Radiation Exposure



Mechanism of Biological Damage



Factors Affecting Biological Damage



Radiation Dose



Dose Rate



LET or Type of Radiation



Type of Tissue



Amount of Tissue



Rate of Cell Turnover



Biological Variation



Chemical Modifiers



Deleterious Effects in Humans



Acute Effects



Late Effects



Radiation Effects in the Fetus



Different Radiation Exposures and the Concepts of Equivalent Dose (Dose Equivalent) and Effective Dose (Effective Dose Equivalent)



Sources of Radiation Exposure



Effective Doses in Nuclear Medicine and Comparison with Other Sources of Exposure



16 Methods of Safe Handling of Radionuclides and Pertaining Rules and Regulations



Principles of Reducing Exposure from External Sources



Time



Distance



Shielding



Avoiding Internal Contamination



The Radioactive Patient



Rules and Regulations



U.S. Regulatory Agencies



Exposure or Dose Limits: Annual Limit on Intake and Derived Air Concentration



ALARA Principle



Types of Licenses



Radiation Safety Committee and Radiation Safety Officer



Personnel Monitoring



Receipt, Use, and Disposal of Radionuclides



Control and Labeling of Areas Where Radionuclides are Stored and/or Used



Contamination Survey and Radiation-Level Monitoring



Receiving and Shipping (Transport) of Radioactive Packages



Accidental Radioactive Spills



A Appendix A: Physical Characteristics of Some Radionuclides of Interest in Nuclear Medicine



B Appendix B: CGS and SI Units



C Appendix C: Exponential Table



D Appendix D: Radionuclides of Interest in Nuclear Medicine



E Appendix E: Organ Masses of a Standard Man


Answers


Suggestions for Further Reading


Index


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Sep 3, 2016 | Posted by in NUCLEAR MEDICINE | Comments Off on Radioactivity: Law of Decay, Half-Life, and Statistics

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