CHAPTER 11 Breast Cancer Metastases to the Neural Axis
Breast cancer is the second most common primary tumor to metastasize to the central nervous system (CNS), after lung cancer.1,2,3 Breast cancer metastases to the neural axis typically occur late in the disease, with lung, liver, or bone metastases preceding the diagnosis of CNS metastases. The median interval between the diagnosis of breast cancer and brain metastases is 34 months. The historical 1-year survival rate after diagnosis of brain metastases is 20%.3
Based on data from the 1960s and 1970s, the incidence of clinically apparent brain metastases in women with stage IV breast cancer is 10% to 16%. However, autopsy data show the incidence to be greater and has been reported to be as high as 30%.1
Younger patients are at higher risk for CNS metastases. In an autopsy series of 1044 breast cancer patients, the median age of patients with CNS metastases was 5 years younger than patients without CNS metastases.1
Studies suggest a relationship between hormone receptor status and the incidence of CNS metastases.1,3,4 A study of 217 breast cancer patients found a difference in the rate of brain metastases between estrogen receptor–negative and –positive tumors (10% versus 4%). In a multivariate model, HER-2/neu overexpression was the strongest predictor of CNS relapse, with a 10-fold increase in the incidence of brain metastases (4.3% versus 0.4%). However, it is unclear whether HER-2/neu positive patients are actually at higher risk for CNS metastases or whether the natural history of their disease is affected by more effective systemic disease control with trastuzumab (Herceptin). HER-2 amplification occurs in 25% to 30% of breast cancers and correlates with decreased disease-free and overall survival rates. Treatment with Herceptin improves systemic disease control and overall survival of HER-2/neu positive patients with metastatic breast cancer. However, it does not cross the blood-brain barrier. The theory is that the natural history of the disease may be changed as a result of improved extra-CNS systemic disease control from Herceptin therapy, resulting in an increase in the incidence of CNS metastases. Circumstantial evidence for this includes the statistic that the incidence of CNS metastases in stage IV breast cancer patients who are treated with Herceptin is higher than historical norms, and ranges from 28% to 43%.
DISTRIBUTION OF CRANIAL METASTASES
Brain metastases result from hematogenous spread. Their predilection for the gray-white matter junction is thought to result from decreased vessel caliber at this level acting as a trap for embolized clumps of tumor cells. Similarly, there is a predilection of metastases to occur at intracranial vascular watershed levels. The distribution of metastases within brain compartments is roughly proportionate to the blood supply, with about 80% occurring in the cerebrum, 15% in the cerebellum, and 5% in the brainstem. Metastases occur most commonly at the junction of gray and white matter in the cerebral hemispheres, followed by deep gray matter (basal ganglia, thalami), intraventricular (choroid plexus), and cerebellum.3,6
CNS metastases can be categorized as intra-axial, extra-axial, or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) dissemination. Breast cancer more commonly involves multiple compartments (parenchyma, meninges, bone) than other tumors. It is the solid tumor most commonly associated with leptomeningeal involvement, although this is considerably less common than parenchymal metastases, occurring in 5% to 16% of patients at autopsy.1 Breast cancer also metastasizes to the eye at a higher rate than other tumors. A small percentage of breast cancer metastases target the meninges or the skull diploic space. Growth of such lesions may be intracranial and can compress the brain surface, whereas metastases to the skull base dura or bone can exert mass effect on the brainstem or cranial nerves.
The most common imaging manifestation of intracranial metastatic disease is multiple intra-axial brain masses.6 These vary in size, shape, and enhancement patterns; the amount of associated edema can range from negligible to intense. Lesions can be solid and enhance uniformly (Figure 1), or can be cystic (Figure 2) or necrotic, with peripheral rim enhancement. Rim enhancement can be thin, thick, uniform, or irregular (Figure 3). Identifying single or multiple intracranial mass lesions in a breast cancer patient is highly suspicious for intracranial metastases, although it has mimicks with other diagnoses, including other neoplasms (metastases from other primaries, brain primary neoplasia, and CNS lymphoma), demyelinating disorders such as multiple sclerosis, multifocal infectious or granulomatous processes, and multifocal ischemic or vasculitic lesions.6
Extra-axial mass lesions may be formed by metastases to the skull or dura. Dural-based metastatic masses can be nodular and mass-like (Figure 4) or elongated and plaque-like (Figure 5). The underlying cerebral cortex may be compressed and edema incited in the underlying parenchyma. Morphologically, dural-based metastases may mimic meningiomas, or subdural collections.6
FIGURE 4 Enhanced axial T1-weighted MRI of a 51-year-old woman with metastatic breast cancer shows an enhancing, lobular, dural- and bone-based mass centered on the left sphenoid wing. The component extending into the left middle cranial fossa mimics a meningioma, being dural based and extra-axial, with well-defined margins and an enhancing dural tail. The underlying brain is compressed and edematous. Enhancing tumor also replaces the sphenoid wing bones, and on other levels, extended into the left orbit (not shown). See additional images from the same patient in Case 6 in this chapter.
FIGURE 5 A 47-year-old woman with new-onset expressive aphasia and prior gamma knife therapy 7 months before for right posterior parietal metastasis. Enhanced axial T1-weighted MRI shows a localized region of plaque-like metastatic dural enhancement over the left cerebrum. Additional images on this case can be seen in Case 7 in this chapter.
Leptomeningeal tumor consists at pathologic studies of sheet-like growth of tumor on the brain, spinal cord, or nerve root surfaces. Three mechanisms are postulated for CSF dissemination of tumors.3 Tumor cells may rupture out of the subarachnoid space or pial vessels. Growing metastases in the brain cortex or pia may contact and be bathed by CSF, and thereby shed cells into it. Alternatively, hematogenous metastases to the choroid plexus may seed the CSF. Lobular carcinoma has been noted in clinical and autopsy series to be more likely to manifest as leptomeningeal tumorthan ductal carcinoma. The diagnosis can be suggested by characteristic imaging findings on gadolinium-enhanced MRI or can be established by CSF cytology. The imaging hallmarks are enhancement of the leptomeninges (pia and arachnoid) on the brain or cord surface, which can be confluent and sheet-like or nodular, with extension into sulci or along cranial nerves or around the cauda equina (Figure 6).
DETECTION OF CNS METASTASES BY IMAGING
Gadolinium-chelate contrast-enhanced MRI is acknowledged to be the most sensitive imaging modality for the diagnosis of neural axis metastases.7,9 Enhanced MRI is superior to enhanced CT for both brain parenchymal and brain and spine leptomeningeal disease due to its higher soft tissue contrast, higher sensitivity to contrast enhancement, direct multiplanar capability, and lack of artifacts related to bone. It particularly excels in demonstration of lesions in the posterior fossa and brainstem, where beam-hardening artifacts can be problematic on CT. MRI is also superior to CT in identifying multiple lesions, which is helpful in the differential diagnosis.6
The role of brain PET is limited in evaluating for metastases. Although brain metastases can be seen occasionally on whole-body PET scans (see Case 4 in this chapter), the sensitivity of PET for detection of brain metastases is inferior to MRI and is size dependent. The likelihood of detecting a 1-cm lesion with PET is reported to be about 40%. On a retrospective evaluation of whole-body PET performance in identifying brain metastases, Rohren and colleagues found that PET detected only 61% of lesions found by MRI.5
INDICATIONS FOR IMAGING
CNS metastases may be heralded clinically by focal neurologic symptoms, seizure activity, or symptoms reflecting increased intracranial pressure, such as headache, nausea, vomiting, and mental status changes.1,3 Focal neurologic symptoms may result from tumor-induced chemical changes causing neuron dysfunction and swelling, or from mass effect from compression of normal tissue. Tumor-induced electrical dysfunction can lead to seizure activity. Increased intracranial pressure may result from obstructive hydrocephalus, such as from mass effect from a parenchymal metastasis to the posterior fossa, or from communicating hydrocephalus due to leptomeningeal metastases.
TREATMENT OPTIONS
After corticosteroid treatment for edema, therapeutic choices for brain metastases include whole-brain radiation therapy (WBRT), neurosurgery, stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS), and chemotherapy.1,2,3 If there are multiple metastases, WBRT has been shown to improve survival and quality of life compared with corticosteroids alone. Median survival is 4 to 5 months. Most patients (75% to 85%) will have improvement of symptoms, with best palliation achieved of seizures and headache. Imaging responses to effective radiation therapy range from complete resolution to shrinkage in size of lesions, to decreased number of identifiable lesions, to alterations of morphology, with improved mass effect and associated edema (Figure 7).
SPINAL METASTASES
Metastases that compress the spinal cord most commonly present with pain at that level. With increased compression, symptoms progress to numbness below that level and eventually to difficulty ambulating. If untreated, there can be progression to paralysis. Bowel and bladder dysfunction may occur late.
Metastases to the cauda equina produce back pain and, variably, radicular symptoms.9
1 Lin NU, Bellon JR, Winer EP. CNS metastases in breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22:3608-3617.
2 Chang EL, Lo S. Diagnosis and management of central nervous system metastases from breast cancer. Oncologist. 2003;8:398-410.
3 Parker EC, Kelly PJ. Brain metastases from breast cancer. In: Roses DF, editor. Breast Cancer. Philadelphia: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone; 2005:633-643.
4 Bendell JC, Domchek SM, Burstein HJ, et al. Central nervous system metastases in women who receive trastuzumab-based therapy for metastatic breast carcinoma. Cancer. 2003;97(12):2972-2977.
5 Rohren EM, Provenzale JM, Barboriak DP, et al. Screening for cerebral metastases with FDG PET in patients undergoing whole-body staging of non–central nervous system malignancy. Radiology. 2003;226:181-187.
6 Yock DH. Magnetic Resonance Imaging of CNS Disease: A Teaching File. St. Louis: Mosby, 2002;2-19. 101, 439
7 Sze G, Milano E, Johnson C, et al. Detection of brain metastases: comparison of contrast-enhanced MR with unenhanced MR and enhanced CT. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1990;11:785.
8 Davis PC, Hudgins PA, Peterman SB, et al. Diagnosis of cerebral metastases: double-dose delayed CT vs contrast-enhanced MR imaging. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1991;12:293.
9 Douglas AF, Cooper PR. Spinal column metastases from breast cancer. In: Roses DF, editor. Breast Cancer. Philadelphia: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone; 2005:644-652.
CASE 1 Multilocular thalamic cystic metastasis
A 43-year-old woman with metastatic breast cancer to the thorax developed nausea, one episode of vomiting, progressive headache, confusion, and speech difficulty.
Lung and nodal breast cancer metastases had been identified the year before with PET and CT evaluation for rising tumor markers. The diagnosis of recurrent breast cancer was confirmed by a lung nodule biopsy, which showed malignant adenocarcinoma, consistent with breast primary. The patient was begun on a regimen of docetaxel (Taxotere) and Gemzar. This was eventually discontinued because of pulmonary toxicity (see Case 12 in Chapter 10) and disease progression. The patient’s regimen was changed to capecitabine (Xeloda) for six cycles, with a good initial response, but subsequent regrowth.
When the patient developed symptoms of headache, nausea, and mental status changes, a noncontrast head CT scan was obtained (Figure 1). The head CT identified a lesion and suggested that secondary hydrocephalus was developing. Unenhanced head CT excluded a hemorrhage. Brain MRI was obtained next, which better showed the internal structure of the mass, which was solitary (Figure 2).
TEACHING POINTS
Although hematogenous brain metastases classically favor a peripheral distribution, often at the gray-white matter junction, brain metastases not uncommonly occur in deeper locations, frequently the periventricular regions. Masses such as this, occurring adjacent to ventricles, can be difficult to distinguish from masses within ventricles. MRI is very helpful in this distinction, because of its multiplanar capability and better soft tissue contrast.The higher sensitivity of MRI is also useful in the evaluation of suspected metastases by identification or exclusion of additional lesions.