Lobar Pneumonia

Radiographic Features

This type of pneumonia produces a pattern of confluent opacification, often with air bronchograms (Fig. 3-1). The entire lobe may be involved, but more frequently because of early use of antibiotics, the pneumonia involves only one or more segments within a lobe (i.e., sublobar form). A lobar pneumonia may result in expansion of the lobe due to voluminous edema, which is usually caused by infection with K. pneumoniae (Fig. 3-2). The enlargement of the lobe can be recognized radiographically by bulging of the interlobar fissures. Necrosis, cavitation, and development of a unique complication, pulmonary gangrene, may ensue.

Figure 3-1 Posteroanterior (A) and lateral (B) views of lobar consolidation involving the middle lobe supported the diagnosis of Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) infection.

Figure 3-2 Anteroposterior view of a patient with Klebsiella pneumonia shows homogeneous opacity of the right upper lobe with slight bulging of the minor fissure (arrow).

The computed tomography (CT) features of lobar pneumonia are similar to those seen on standard radiography (Fig. 3-3). There is usually evidence of confluent opacification with air bronchograms. The air bronchograms are often more easily visualized with CT examination. Table 3-2 summarizes the radiographic clues to the cause of pneumonia.

Figure 3-3 CT of a pneumococcal left upper lobar consolidation shows clearly defined air bronchograms and evidence of cavitation.

Table 3-2 Radiographic Clues to the Cause of Pneumonia

Radiographic Finding	Likely Causative Organisms
Round pneumonia	Suspect Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus)
Complete lobar consolidation	S. pneumoniae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and other gram-negative bacilli; Legionella pneumophila and occasionally Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Lobar enlargement	K. pneumoniae, pneumococcus, Staphylococcus aureus, Haemophilus influenzae
Bilateral pneumonia (bronchopneumonia)	S. pneumoniae still common, but suspect others, including S. aureus, streptococci, gram-negative bacilli, anaerobes, L. pneumophila, virus, and aspiration syndromes
Interstitial pneumonia	Virus, M. pneumoniae, and occasionally H. influenzae, S. pneumoniae, and other bacteria
Septic emboli	Usually S. aureus; occasionally gram-negative bacilli, anaerobes, and streptococci
Empyema or bronchopleural fistula	S. aureus, gram-negative bacilli, anaerobes, and occasionally, pneumococcus; mixed bacterial infections common
Contiguous spread to chest wall	Actinomycosis; occasionally other bacteria or fungi
Cavitation	S. aureus, gram-negative bacilli, anaerobic bacteria, and streptococci; cavitation uncommon with S. pneumoniae or L. pneumophila
Pulmonary gangrene	K. pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, H. influenzae, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, S. pneumoniae, anaerobes, or fungi
Pneumatoceles	S. aureus, gram-negative bacilli, H. influenzae, M. tuberculosis, and measles; S. pneumoniae rare
Lymphadenopathy	M. tuberculosis, fungi, virus, M. pneumoniae, common bacterial lung abscess, and rarely plague, tularemia, and anthrax
Fulminant course with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)	Virus, S. aureus, streptococci, M. tuberculosis, and L. pneumophila

From Woodring JH: Pulmonary bacterial and viral infections. In Freundlich IM, Bragg DG (eds): A Radiologic Approach to Diseases of the Chest. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1992.

Bronchopneumonia

Radiographic Features

The radiographic appearance of bronchopneumonia pneumonia is most frequently that of multiple, ill-defined nodular opacities that are patchy but that may eventually become confluent and produce consolidation with airspace opacification (Fig. 3-4). The opacification may be multifocal and involve several lobes, or it may be diffuse. As the disease progresses, segmental and lobar opacification develops, similar to the pattern of a lobar pneumonia. Early necrosis and cavitation can occur. The nodular opacities of bronchopneumonia can be identified with facility on CT scans. The small nodules, usually less than 1 cm in diameter, represent peribronchiolar areas of consolidation or ground-glass opacity. They are called acinar or airspace nodules, but these nodules histologically are found in a peribronchiolar location. They are ill-defined and may be of homogenous soft tissue opacity and obscuring vessels, or they may be hazy and less dense so that adjacent vessels are clearly seen (i.e., ground-glass opacity). These nodules usually have a centrilobular location because of their proximity to small bronchioles.

Figure 3-4 Bronchopneumonia. The posteroanterior view demonstrates bilateral, patchy, and inhomogeneous opacities, which have become confluent in some areas. The patient was diagnosed with viral influenza pneumonia.

Acute Interstitial Pneumonia

Radiographic Features

Bronchopneumonia or an acute interstitial pneumonia may be seen with viral infections (Fig. 3-5). The early radiographic appearance is that of thickening of end-on bronchi and tram lines. However, this often evolves into a reticular pattern that may be seen extending outward from the hila.

Figure 3-5 Acute interstitial pneumonia due to varicella (chickenpox). Coned-down view of the right lung demonstrates a fine reticulonodular pattern, which is more prominent centrally.

Hematogenous Spread of Infection

Radiographic Features

Septic infarcts tend to be multiple and peripheral and to abut the pleural surface. They occur more frequently in the lower lobes. These nodules or wedge-shaped opacities may show evidence of cavitation (Fig. 3-6). CT often demonstrates a vessel connected to the area of infarction. On CT, the septic infarcts appear as wedge-shaped, peripheral opacities abutting the pleura. They may contain air bronchograms or rounded lucencies of air, sometimes referred to as pseudocavitation. True cavitation is common. Occasionally, septic bacterial infection may result in diffuse massive seeding of the lungs with a miliary pattern (i.e., very small nodular pattern), although this is much more common with hematogenous dissemination of granulomatous infections.

Figure 3-6 Septic infarcts in an intravenous drug abuser. A, The posteroanterior chest radiograph shows multiple, bilateral cavitary nodules. B and C, CT examination demonstrates that most of the infarcts are peripheral in location; some abut the pleura and occasionally are wedge shaped. True and pseudocavities (curved arrow) are present.

Cavitation

Necrosis of lung parenchyma with cavitation (Fig. 3-7) may occur in pneumonia, particularly that produced by virulent bacteria, including S. aureus, streptococci, gram-negative bacilli, and anaerobic bacteria. If the inflammatory process is localized, a lung abscess will form. It is usually rounded and focal, and it appears to be a mass (Fig. 3-8). With liquefaction of the central inflammatory process, a communication may develop with the bronchus; air enters the abscess, forming a cavity, which often contains an air-fluid level. The walls of the cavity may be smooth, but more often, they are thick and irregular.

Figure 3-7 Cavitary pneumonia due to gram-negative organisms. CT shows two areas of cavitation with an air-fluid level in the more posterior area, indicating bronchial communication.

Figure 3-8 Primary lung abscess due to aspiration. The posteroanterior (A) and lateral (B) views show a well-defined, masslike opacity in the superior segment of the right lower lobe. There is cavitation with an air-fluid level and a thick wall.

Multiple, small cavities or microabscesses may develop in necrotizing pneumonia (Fig. 3-9). They are recognized as multiple areas of lucency within a consolidated lobe or segment. A similar appearance may be produced by consolidation superimposed on areas of preexisting emphysema. If the necrosis is extensive, arteritis and vascular thrombosis may occur in an area of intense inflammation, causing ischemic necrosis and death of a portion of lung. This is a particular complication of Klebsiella pneumonia and other pneumonias producing lobar enlargement. The radiographic features include multiple areas of cavitation, often with air-fluid levels. Portions of dead lung may slough and form intracavitary masses.

Figure 3-9 Microabscesses caused by Pseudomonas pneumonia in the right upper lobe. Multiple, thin-walled, multiloculated cavities can be seen with little surrounding parenchymal opacity.

Pneumatocele Formation

Pneumatoceles are usually associated with pneumonia caused by virulent organisms; the classic offender is S. aureus (Fig. 3-10). They usually form subpleural collections of air, which result from alveolar rupture. Radiographically, they appear as single or multiple, cystic lesions with thin and smooth walls. They may show rapid change in size and location on serial radiographs.

Figure 3-10 Pneumatocele. Coned-down (anteroposterior) view of the chest in a patient with fulminant staphylococcal pneumonia shows a rounded lucency in left lower lobe caused by a pneumatocele (arrow).

Hilar and Mediastinal Adenopathy

Intrathoracic lymphadenopathy that can be recognized on standard radiographs is uncommon in most bacterial and viral infections; some notable exceptions include Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Pasteurella tularensis, and Yersinia pestis. Adenopathy may be associated with fungal infections or bacterial infections that are long-standing or virulent, as in lung abscesses. CT may show slightly enlarged nodes (>1 cm) in patients with common bacterial infections that are not visible on standard radiography.

Pleural Effusions and Empyema

Pleural effusion is a common complication of pneumonia, occurring in about 40% of cases (Fig. 3-11). Most effusions are parapneumonic, but infection of the pleural space with empyema requiring drainage is an important but uncommon complication of some pneumonias. Empyemas can be recognized by the presence of gross pus within the pleural space, by a white blood cell count in the pleural fluid of greater than 15,000 cells/mm³, by the presence of bacteria within the pleural fluid, or by a pH less than 7.2. Chapter 18 provides more detail on the pleural complications of pneumonia.

Figure 3-11 Parapneumonic effusion (pneumococcal pneumonia). A, The posteroanterior view shows a right upper lobe consolidation. B, An oblique view 2 days later demonstrates a right effusion.

Parenchymal necrosis in an underlying pneumonia may produce a fistula between the bronchus and the pleural space (i.e., bronchopleural fistula), and this results in an empyema with an air-fluid level. Further discussion of these entities can be found in Chapter 18.

Other Complications

Rapidly progressive and fulminant bacterial or viral pneumonia may result in the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). In the preantibiotic era, bronchiectasis was an extremely common complication of bacterial pneumonia, but the incidence of bronchiectasis has declined with the advent of antibiotics. Most pneumonias clear within 2 or 3 weeks, but in elderly patients, resolution may take 3 to 4 months. Necrotizing pneumonias also tend to resolve slowly. Recurrent pneumonias are frequently found in patients with predisposing factors such as chronic obstructive lung disease, bronchiectasis, alcoholism, and diabetes. Although recurrent or persistent pneumonia in the same location raises the possibility of an obstructing endobronchial lesion due to lung carcinoma, cancer accounts for less than 5% of such cases.

Streptococcus pneumoniae

S. pneumoniae (Box 3-2) is responsible for one third to one half of community-acquired pneumonias in adults. These infections occur more frequently in the winter and early spring. Pneumococcal pneumonia occurs in healthy people, but it is much more common in alcoholic, debilitated, and other immunocompromised individuals.

The radiographic features include consolidation that is usually unilateral, although it may be bilateral, and it typically affects the lower lobes (see Fig. 3-1). Although it is a lobar pneumonia, it is uncommon for the lobe to be completely consolidated. Cavitation is rare, and large pleural effusions are uncommon. When present, they suggest the development of empyema. Sometimes, especially in children, the pneumonia may have a rounded, masslike appearance (Fig. 3-12). This is called a round pneumonia; it results from centrifugal spread of the rapidly replicating bacteria by way of the pores of Kohn and canals of Lambert from a single primary focus in the lung.

Figure 3-12 Rounded pneumonia. The lateral (A) and posteroanterior (B) chest radiographs and CT (C) of an adult patient shows an ill-defined, rounded opacity in the left upper lobe due to rounded pneumonia caused by pneumococcus. The opacity simulated a lung neoplasm radiographically, but it completely resolved after antibiotic therapy.

Staphylococcus aureus

S. aureus (Box 3-3) is a gram-positive coccus, and the spherical organisms occur in pairs and clusters. This pneumonia rarely develops in healthy adults, but it is sometimes a complication of viral infections and is much more common in infants and children. In infants, unilateral or bilateral consolidation involving the lower lungs is the most frequent radiographic presentation. Pneumatoceles, thin-walled cysts filled with air or partially filled with fluid, may develop and occasionally rupture into the pleural space, resulting in pneumothorax. In adults, the disease is usually bilateral and is preceded by an atypical pneumonia such as influenza. Cavitation is a common feature, and the cavities may be multiple, thick walled, and irregular (Fig. 3-13). There is a high incidence of large pleural effusions, and empyema resulting from bronchopleural fistula is a common complication. Methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) pneumonia usually occurs as a nosocomial infection in health care centers particularly in older, immunocompromised or intensive care unit patients.

Figure 3-13 Staphylococcus aureus abscess. In the composite of four CT images of a patient with a left lower lobe staphylococcal abscess, notice the thick walls of the cavity (closed arrows) and the retained thick exudate in the center. Pockets of air in the peripheral regions of the cavity probably represent small pneumatoceles (open arrows).

(Courtesy of Dorothy L. McCauley, MD. New York University Medical Center, New York, NY.)

Staphylococcal infection in the lungs may occur by way of the hematogenous route. This is usually the result of septic emboli, which arise in the central veins or as vegetations on cardiac valves, particularly in intravenous drug abusers and patients with indwelling intravenous catheters. The radiographic appearance is that of multiple nodular masses with or without cavitation, as previously described.

Streptococcus pyogenes

Streptococci (Box 3-4) are gram-positive cocci that occur in pairs and chains. The pneumonia occasionally occurs in epidemic proportions. This form of pneumonia is much less common than that caused by Staphylococcus or S. pneumoniae (pneumococcus).

The radiographic features include lower lobe consolidation, often occurring with a segmental distribution. Pleural effusions occur frequently, but localized empyema is unusual.

Klebsiella pneumoniae

Klebsiella pneumonia (Box 3-5) usually occurs in middle-aged or elderly patients, in those with underlying chronic lung disease, and in alcoholic individuals. Radiographic features consist of an upper lobe consolidation. Cavitation is common, and the lobar consolidation may lead to an expanded lobe with bulging interlobar fissures (see Fig. 3-2). If necrosis is extensive, pulmonary gangrene may develop.

Escherichia coli

E. coli pneumonia (Box 3-6) may be caused by direct extension from the gastrointestinal or genitourinary tract across the diaphragm or result from bacteremia. As is true of most of the gram-negative pneumonias, it is frequently characterized by the development of necrosis and multiple cavities. The lower lobes are more frequently involved.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

P. aeruginosa pneumonia (Box 3-7) usually occurs in hospitalized patients, particularly those with debilitating disease (see Fig. 3-9). Organisms that affect the lungs often result from contamination of suction and tracheostomy devices. Radiographic features include a lower lobe predilection. However, the consolidation may spread rapidly to affect both lungs. Pleural effusions are uncommon. Multiple, irregular nodules may develop and are usually associated with bacteremia. These nodules may cavitate.

Haemophilus influenzae

H. influenzae pneumonia (Box 3-8) usually develops in patients with COPD. The appearance is typically that of a bronchopneumonia with homogeneous segmental opacities, usually in the lower lobes. Cavitation and pleural effusions are rare.

Mycoplasma pneumoniae

M. pneumoniae (Box 3-11) accounts for approximately 20% of all cases of pneumonia. It usually occurs during the winter months in enclosed populations, such as students in college dormitories. The incubation period is 2 to 3 weeks, and the onset is often insidious, with low-grade fever and nonproductive cough. Extrapulmonary manifestations may include otitis, nonexudative pharyngitis, and diarrhea.

The radiographic features are usually those of a fairly diffuse, interstitial, fine reticulonodular pattern. This may evolve to patchy airspace consolidation, particularly in the lower lobes (Fig. 3-15). Hilar adenopathy is seen in approximately 20% to 40% of patients. The radiographic appearance is very similar to that of many viral infections. The diagnosis is made by serologic evaluation.

Figure 3-15 Mycoplasma pneumonia. A and B, Patchy, bilateral areas of inhomogeneous consolidation involve multiple lobes.

Legionnaires’ Disease

The first outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease was recognized in Philadelphia at a Legionnaires’ convention (Box 3-12).