Cardiac and Paracardiac Masses



Cardiac and Paracardiac Masses


Charles B. Higgins

Karen Ordovas



The goals of tomographic imaging in evaluation of cardiac masses are the following:



  • Identify an intracardiac or extracardiac mass.


  • Demonstrate the extent and invasiveness of the mass (staging of tumor).


  • Distinguish between benign and malignant tumor if possible.


  • Distinguish between primary and secondary tumor.


  • Distinguish between tumor and thrombus.

The term mass is used rather than tumor in this chapter because the most frequent mass within a cardiac chamber is thrombus rather than tumor. Primary tumors are rare. Secondary tumors, either metastatic or representing direct extension of primary tumors of another organ, are about 40 times more frequent than primary cardiac tumors.

Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can help determine the presence and extent of cardiac and paracardiac tumors. These modalities, especially MRI, can also sometimes characterize the mass. Although CT may be adequate for the evaluation of cardiac and paracardiac mass, MRI is usually employed for this purpose. Consequently, this chapter focuses on the findings on MRI.

Because of a wide field of view that encompasses the cardiovascular structures, mediastinum, and adjacent lung simultaneously, CT and MRI can display the intracardiac and extracardiac extent of tumors. In addition, the ability to image in multiple planes makes MRI especially suited for the demarcation of the spatial relationship of a mass to the various cardiac and mediastinal structures. Multiplanar images or reconstructions overcome the volume-averaging problem at the diaphragmatic interface encountered with a solely transaxial imaging plane. These features permit a clear delineation of the possible infiltration of a mass lesion into cardiac and adjacent mediastinal structures. MRI allows the assessment of functional parameters such as ventricular wall thickening, ejection fraction, or flow velocity in adjacent vessels. Therefore, the impact of a tumor on cardiac function can be evaluated.

In clinical practice, MRI and CT are most often used to verify or exclude a possible mass suggested initially by echocardiography. Echocardiography clearly depicts cardiac morphology and provides an assessment of functional parameters. The effectiveness of transthoracic echocardiography is limited by the acoustic window, however, which varies considerably with patient habitus. Image quality of echocardiography may be severely decreased by obesity or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Transesophageal echocardiography overcomes this problem but adds invasiveness. The soft tissue contrast achieved with echocardiography remains limited in comparison with that obtained with MRI and CT. Usually, pericardial involvement and infiltration of the myocardium can be better visualized with MRI and CT.

Tissue characterization based on specific T1 and T2 relaxation times is possible to a limited degree. Nevertheless, definitive differentiation between benign and malignant tumors is sometimes not possible. Most cardiac tumors have low to intermediate signal intensity on T1-weighted images and high signal intensity on T2-weighted images. However, the combination of imaging characteristics of a cardiac mass, such as location, signal intensity on T1- and T2-weighted images, possible hyperenhancement after the administration of paramagnetic contrast agents, and possible suppression of signal with the application of a fat-saturation technique, may render a specific tissue diagnosis highly probable in some cases.


TECHNIQUES


Computed Tomography

Multislice or spiral single-slice CT scans in the axial plane after contrast enhancement are used to identify and determine the extent of masses (Fig. 35-1). For this evaluation, ECG-gated multislice CT acquisitions are not necessary. However, ECG-gated multislice CT is now sometimes used especially for evaluation of an intracardiac mass. Collimation is usually 1.25 to 2.5 mm. Retrospective reconstruction of volumetric data in the sagittal or coronal plane may be useful. Reconstructions in the sagittal and coronal planes are done routinely using the multislice axial data usually with slice thickness of 1.25 mm or less. Positron emission tomography/CT can also be used to indicate the likely malignant nature of intracardiac and paracardiac tumors (Fig. 35-2).







FIG. 35.1. Contrast-enhanced CT in the axial plane shows a low-density left ventricular mass involving the apex (arrows). Coronal reconstruction from the CT better demonstrates the relationship of the mass (arrowheads) with the left ventricular apex. Note the peripheral rim of high density with some calcifications surrounding the lower density central mass (fibroma). LV, left ventricle; LA, left atrium; RV, right ventricle; Ao, aorta.


Magnetic Resonance Imaging

ECG-gated transaxial T1-weighted spin-echo (SE) images of the entire thorax are initially acquired for the evaluation of suspected cardiac or paracardiac masses. In addition, such images are frequently acquired in the sagittal or coronal plane to delineate the regions that are displayed suboptimally in the transaxial plane, such as the diaphragmatic surface of the heart. Coronal images facilitate the evaluation of masses involving the aortopulmonary window and pulmonary hili, and mediastinal masses that extend through the cervicothoracic junction. The wide field of view afforded by sagittal and coronal images can readily display the extent of tumors (Figs. 35-3 and 35-4). Contrast between intramural tumor and normal myocardium may be low on nonenhanced T1-weighted images. Transaxial T2-weighted SE images are acquired to enhance the contrast between myocardium and tumor tissue, which usually has a longer T2 relaxation time, and to delineate possible cystic or necrotic components of a mass. The comparison of signal intensities of a mass lesion on T1-weighted and T2-weighted images may to a certain degree allow for tissue characterization. For example, lipomas have relatively high signal intensity on T1-weighted images and moderate signal intensity on T2-weighted images. Cystic lesions (filled with simple fluid) have low signal intensity on T1-weighted images and high signal intensity on T2-weighted images (Fig. 35-5). The administration of Gd-DTPA (gadolinium diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid) usually improves the contrast between tumor tissue and myocardium on T1-weighted images and may facilitate tissue characterization. Hyperenhancement of tumor tissue with MR contrast agents indicates either an enlarged extracellular space of tumor tissue in comparison with normal myocardium (Fig. 35-6) or a high degree of vascularization of the mass. Application of a fat-saturation sequence, which vitiates the bright signal of fat, is effective for the tissue characterization of lipomas (Fig. 35-7).






FIG. 35.2. A: Axial contrast-enhanced CT image shows a right atrial mass (arrowheads) with a wide point of attachment to the wall. Note a second mass (arrow) within the right ventricle (RV). B: PET scan in the axial plane shows avid uptake of FDG in part of the atrial mass (large arrow) and in the ventricular mass (small arrows) patient with metastatic thyroid cancer. Note that part of the atrial mass (arrowhead) has no uptake due to tumor necrosis. LV, left ventricle.







FIG. 35.3. Angiosarcoma. ECG-gated spin-echo image in the coronal plane shows a large tumor in the right atrium extending through the atrial wall (arrow). The wide field of view of the coronal plane demonstrates the extent of this angiosarcoma.






FIG. 35.4. Angiosarcoma. ECG-gated spin-echo image in the coronal plane demonstrates a tumor (T) infiltrating through the right atrial cavity and extending around the superior vena cava (arrows).






FIG. 35.5. Pericardial cyst. ECG-gated spin-echo T1-weighted (A) and T2-weighted (B) images of a pericardial cyst (C). The simple fluid in the cyst has typical low signal on T1-weighted and homogeneous high signal on T2-weighted images.







FIG. 35.6. Angiosarcoma. ECG-gated spin-echo T1-weighted images before (A) and after (B) gadolinium chelate administration demonstrates hyperenhancement of the tumor (T) compared with the septal myocardium. The postcontrast image uses fat saturation.

In patients with cardiac tumors, cine MRI provides valuable information regarding the movement of the cardiac mass relative to cardiovascular structures. Because cine MR images are acquired with gradient-echo or steady-state free precession (SSFP) sequences, a different contrast is obtained than with the SE technique. On SE images, flowing blood appears with low signal intensity, whereas gradient-echo or SSFP images display the blood pool with high signal intensity. Most studies using white blood imaging now use some form of SSFP sequence.






FIG. 35.7. Lipoma. ECG-gated spin-echo images in coronal plane, before (A) and after (B) fat saturation, of a mass situated above the left atrium (LA). Signal of the mass is suppressed with fat saturation.


LOCATION OF CARDIAC AND PARACARDIAC MASSES



  • Intracavitary


  • Intramural


  • Intrapericardial—outer contour of pericardium with compression of adjacent cardiac chamber


  • Paracardiac or mediastirial (Fig. 35-8)







FIG. 35.8. Location of masses on tomographic imaging.


BENIGN PRIMARY CARDIAC TUMORS

About 80% of primary cardiac tumors are benign (Table 35-1). Although these tumors do not metastasize or invade locally, they may lead to significant morbidity and mortality by causing arrhythmias, valvular obstruction, or embolism. An intramyocardial location can interfere with normal conduction pathways and produce arrhythmias, obstruct coronary blood flow, or diminish compliance or contractility through replacement of myocardium. Both benign and malignant tumors have characteristic sites of origin (Table 35-2).


Myxoma

Myxoma is the most common benign cardiac tumor. It is located in the left atrium in 75% of cases and in the right atrium in 20% of cases. Multiple atrial myxomas may occur rarely, especially in Carney’s syndrome. This tumor is usually spherical, but the shape may vary during the cardiac cycle because of its gelatinous consistency. Left atrial myxomas are typically attached by a narrow pedicle to the area of the fossa ovalis (Fig. 35-9, A). Infrequently, myxomas have a wide base of attachment to the atrial septum (see Fig. 35-9, B). However, a wide mural attachment is more frequently encountered with malignant tumors. The extent of attachment may be difficult to assess for large tumors, which fill nearly the entire cavity so that they are compressed against the septum (Fig. 35-9, B). As a result, the tumor appears to have broad contact with the atrial septum on static MR images. Myxomas can grow through a patent foramen ovale and extend into both atria, a condition that has been described
as a “dumbbell” appearance. Cine MRI permits an evaluation of tumor motion and may help to identify the site and length of attachment of the tumor to the wall or walls of the cardiac chambers. With this technique, myxomas have been shown to prolapse through the funnel of the atrioventricular valve (Fig. 35-10) or into the corresponding ventricle during diastole. Rarely, myxoma can have a wide point of attachment to ventricular endocardium (Figs. 35-11 and 35-12).








TABLE 35.1 Primary Benign Cardiac Tumors







  • Myxoma




    • usually attached to atrial septum



    • most frequently in LA



  • Lipoma or lipomatous hypertrophy of atrial septum



  • Papillary fibroelastoma




    • usually attach to valve (aortic valve most frequent)



  • Rhabdomyoma




    • most common tumor in children



  • Fibroma



  • Pheochromocytoma



  • Hemangioma









TABLE 35.2 Typical Sites of Origin of Cardiac Tumors




































Tumor


Site(s)


• Myxoma


Left atrium 75%; right atrium 20%


• Lipoma


Right atrium; atrial septum


• Papillary fibroelastoma


Aortic valve 30%; mitral valve 2%; pulmonary valve 13%; tricuspid valve 17%


• Rhabdomyoma


Left and right ventricular myocardium


• Fibroma


Right ventricular wall and ventricular septum


• Pheochromocytoma


Peri-left atrium; retroaortic; aorticopulmonary window


• Hemangioma


Any cardiac chamber


• Angiosarcoma


Right atrium, pericardial cavity


• Rhabdomyosarcoma


Ventricular myocardium


• Lymphoma


Right atrium







FIG. 35.9. Myxomas. ECG-gated spin-echo images display two left atrial myxomas with a narrow point of attachment (pedicle; A) and a wide point of attachment (B) to the left side of the atrial septum.

Usually, myxomas display intermediate signal intensity (isointense to the myocardium) on T1-weighted SE images. On T2-weighted SE images, myxomas usually have higher signal intensity than myocardium. However, myxomas with very low signal intensity have also been observed. Fibrous stroma, calcification, and the deposition of paramagnetic iron following interstitial hemorrhage can reduce the signal intensity of the tumor on T2-weighted SE images. Rarely, myxomas have been reported to be invisible on SE images because of a lack of contrast with the dark blood pool. Such tumors can be delineated with cine MRI, on which they appear with high contrast against the surrounding bright blood. Most myxomas show increased signal intensity after the administration of Gd-DTPA on T1-weighted images (Fig. 35-13) and on delayed gadolinium-enhanced images, which is probably secondary to an increased interstitial space and, therefore, a larger distribution volume of the contrast agent within the tumor than in normal tissue.






FIG. 35.10. Myxoma. Cine MR images (balanced steady-state free precession) in the axial plane display a right atrial myxoma in diastole (A) and systole (B). The motion of the tumor is evident with movement into the tricuspid valve during diastole.







FIG. 35.11. Left ventricular myxoma. T1-weighted axial spin-echo images before (A) and after (B) the administration of gadolinium chelate show a tumor (arrow) with a wide point of attachment to the left ventricular (LV) endocardium. Tumor markedly enhances after contrast media. Fat saturation was used after gadolinium. RV, right ventricle.


Lipoma and Lipomatous Hypertrophy of the Atrial Septum

Lipomas are reported to be the second most common benign cardiac tumor in adults but may actually be the most common. If the mass projects into the right atrium, it is called a lipoma, while lipomatous hypertrophy is confined to the atrial septum. They may occur at any age but are encountered most frequently in middle-aged and elderly adults. Lipomas consist of encapsulated mature adipose cells and fetal fat cells. The tumor consistency is soft, and lipomas may grow to a large size without causing symptoms. Lipomas are typically located in the right atrium (Fig. 35-14) or atrial septum. They arise from the endocardial surface and have a broad base of attachment. Lipomas have the same signal intensity as subcutaneous and epicardial fat on all MRI sequences. Because fat has a short T1 relaxation time, lipomas have high signal intensity on T1-weighted images, which can be suppressed with fat-saturating pulse sequences (see Fig. 35-14). Usually, they appear with homogeneous signal intensity but may have a few thin septations. They do not enhance after the administration of contrast. On T2-weighted images, lipomas have intermediate signal intensity.






FIG. 35.12. Contrast-enhanced CT in the axial plane shows the left ventricular myxoma (arrow) with some enhancement of the central part of the tumor. LV, left ventricle; RV, right ventricle.

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Oct 10, 2016 | Posted by in CARDIOVASCULAR IMAGING | Comments Off on Cardiac and Paracardiac Masses

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