Introduction Classification systems provide a common language through which physicians and researchers can communicate. They can help create a framework for standardized treatment algorithms through which surgeons can directly and…
Introduction The subaxial cervical spine refers to cervical vertebrae located below the “axis” (C2) and is a critical distinction due to inherent biomechanical differences from vertebral levels more cephalad and…
Lumbosacral Anatomy Osseous Anatomy The lumbosacral spine consists of five lumbar (L1–L5) and five sacral vertebrae (S1–S5) and their associated intervertebral discs, nerves, muscles, ligaments, and blood vessels. Each vertebra…
Introduction Computed tomography (CT) scans have become the mainstay modality for screening patients in the setting of cervical trauma and identifying fractures in the subaxial cervical spine. High-resolution CT imaging,…
Introduction Over the past few decades, the management of lumbosacral spinal disease has become notoriously difficult, whereby complex biomechanics and heterogeneity in presenting conditions have challenged treating clinicians. In response,…
Introduction The craniovertebral junction is designed to be strong in order to maintain the head on the shoulders. This junction is also supple and mobile to allow for looking at…
Introduction The evaluation of spinal pathologies is dependent upon careful history, clinical examination, and appropriate full-length spine radiographs. Appropriate full-length spine radiographs should be obtained when evaluating a patient for…
Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper. Introduction There are multiple imaging modalities to evaluate the spine. The type of imaging…
Introduction Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an essential modality in evaluating the ligamentous and soft tissue elements of the upper cervical spine. This region has horizontally oriented facets and no…
Introduction Imaging methods of the spine have greatly expanded since the advent of X-rays for the use of plain radiographs (c.1895), providing anatomical clarity for diagnosis and treatment of the…
